What is Spring Materials？

What is Spring Materials？

The selection of materials to use in the design and fabrication of springs relies on an understanding of the tensile and yield strengths of the various alloyed metals. These materials include high-carbon spring steels, alloy spring steels, stainless spring steels, copper-based spring alloys, and nickel-based spring alloys. In the paragraphs below, we present information about the spring materials, their mechanical properties, typical uses, as well as applications to avoid.

Various metal springs

These spring steels are the most commonly used of all spring materials because they are the least expensive, are easily worked, and are readily available. However, they are not satisfactory for springs operating at high or low temperatures or for shock or impact loading. The following wire forms are available:

Music Wire, ASTM A228 (0.80-0.95 percent carbon): This is the most widely used of all spring materials for small springs operating at temperatures up to about 250°F. It is tough, has a high tensile strength, and can withstand high stresses under repeated loading. The material is readily available in round form in diameters ranging from 0.005 to 0.125 inch and in some larger sizes up to 3⁄16 inch. It is not available with high tensile strengths in square or rectangular sections. Music wire can be plated easily and is obtainable pretinned or preplated with cadmium, but plating after spring manufacture is usually preferred for maximum corrosion resistance.
Oil-Tempered MB Grade, ASTM A229 (0.60-0.70 percent carbon): This general-purpose spring steel is commonly used for many types of coil springs where the cost of music wire is prohibitive and in sizes larger than are available in music wire. It is readily available in diameters ranging from 0.125 to 0.500 inch, but both smaller and larger sizes may be obtained. The material should not be used under shock and impact loading conditions, at temperatures above 350 °F, or at temperatures in the sub-zero range. Square and rectangular sections of wire are obtainable in fractional sizes. Annealed stock also can be obtained for hardening and tempering after coiling. This material has a heat-treating scale that must be removed before plating.
Oil-Tempered HB Grade, SAE 1080 (0.75-0.85 percent carbon): This material is similar to the MB grade except that it has a higher carbon content and a higher tensile strength. It is obtainable in the same sizes and is used for more accurate requirements than the MB Grade, but is not so readily available. In lieu of using this material it may be better to use an alloy spring steel, particularly if a long fatigue life or high endurance properties are needed. Round and square sections are obtainable in the oil-tempered or annealed conditions.
Hard-Drawn MB Grade, ASTM A227 (0.60-0.70 percent carbon): This grade is used for general purpose springs where cost is the most important factor. Although increased use in recent years has resulted in improved quality, it is best not to use this grade where long life and accuracy of loads and deflections are important. It is available in diameters ranging from 0.031 to 0.500 inch and in some smaller and larger sizes also. The material is available in square sections but at reduced tensile strengths. It is readily plated. Applications should be limited to those in the temperature range of 0 to 250 °F.

High-Carbon Spring Steels in Flat Strip Form

Two types of thin, flat, high-carbon spring steel strip are most widely used, although several other types are obtainable for specific applications in watches, clocks, and certain instruments. These two compositions are used for over 95 percent of all such applications. Thin sections of these materials under 0.015 inch having a carbon content of over 0.85 percent and a hardness of over 47 on the Rockwell C scale are susceptible to hydrogen-embrittlement, even though special plating and heating operations are employed. The two types are described as follows:

Cold-Rolled Spring Steel, Blue-Tempered or Annealed, SAE 1074, also 1064, and 1070 (0.60 to 0.80 percent carbon): This very popular spring steel is available in thicknesses ranging from 0.005 to 0.062 inch and in some thinner and thicker sections. The material is available in the annealed condition for forming in 4-slide machines and in presses, and can readily be hardened and tempered after forming. It is also available in the heat-treated or blue-tempered condition. The steel is obtainable in several finishes such as straw color, blue color, black, or plain. Hardnesses ranging from 42 to 46 Rockwell C are recommended for spring applications. Uses include spring clips, flat springs, clock springs, and motor, power, and spiral springs.
Cold-Rolled Spring Steel, Blue-Tempered Clock Steel, SAE 1095 (0.90 to 1.05 percent carbon): This popular type should be used principally in the blue-tempered condition. Although obtainable in the annealed condition, it does not always harden properly during heat-treatment as it is a “shallow” hardening type. It is used principally in clocks and motor springs. End sections of springs made from this steel are annealed for bending or piercing operations. Hardnesses usually range from 47 to 51 Rockwell C. Other materials available in strip form and used for flat springs are brass, phosphorbronze, beryllium-copper, stainless steels, and nickel alloys.

Alloy Spring Steels

These spring steels are used for conditions of high stress, and shock or impact loadings. They can withstand both higher and lower temperatures than the high-carbon steels and are obtainable in either the annealed or pre-tempered conditions.

Chromium Vanadium, ASTM A231: This very popular spring steel is used under conditions involving higher stresses than those for which the high-carbon spring steels are recommended and is also used where good fatigue strength and endurance are needed. It behaves well under shock and impact loading. The material is available in diameters ranging from 0.031 to 0.500 inch and in some larger sizes also. In square sections, it is available in fractional sizes. Both the annealed and pre-tempered types are available in round, square, and rectangular sections. It is used extensively in aircraft-engine valve springs and for springs operating at temperatures up to 425 °F.
Silicon Manganese: This alloy steel is quite popular in Great Britain. It is less expensive than chromium-vanadium steel and is available in round, square, and rectangular sections in both annealed and pre-tempered conditions in sizes ranging from 0.031 to 0.500 inch. It was formerly used for knee-action springs in automobiles. It is used in flat leaf springs for trucks and as a substitute for more expensive spring steels.
Chromium Silicon, ASTM A401: This alloy is used for highly stressed springs that require long life and are subjected to shock loading. It can be heat-treated to higher hardnesses than other spring steels so that high tensile strengths are obtainable. The most popular sizes range from 0.031 to 0.500 inch in diameter. Very rarely are square, flat, or rectangular sections used. Hardnesses ranging from 50 to 53 Rockwell C are quite common, and the alloy may be used at temperatures up to 475°F. This material is usually ordered specially for each job.
Stainless Spring Steels
The use of stainless spring steels has increased and several compositions are available all of which may be used for temperatures up to 550 °F. They are all corrosion-resistant. Only the stainless 18-8 compositions should be used at sub-zero temperatures.

Stainless Type 302, ASTM A313 (18 percent chromium, 8 percent nickel): This stainless spring steel is very popular because it has the highest tensile strength and quite uniform properties. It is cold-drawn to obtain its mechanical properties and cannot be hardened by heat treatment. This material is nonmagnetic only when fully annealed and becomes slightly magnetic due to the cold-working performed to produce spring properties. It is suitable for use at temperatures up to 550 °F and for sub-zero temperatures. It is very corrosion resistant. The material best exhibits its desirable mechanical properties in diameters ranging from 0.005 to 0.1875 inch, although some larger diameters are available. It is also available as hard-rolled flat strip. Square and rectangular sections are available but are infrequently used.
Stainless Type 304, ASTM A313 (18 percent chromium, 8 percent nickel): This material is quite similar to Type 302, but has better bending properties and about 5 percent lower tensile strength. It is a little easier to draw, due to the slightly lower carbon content.
Stainless Type 316, ASTM A313 (18 percent chromium, 12 percent nickel, 2 percent molybdenum): This material is quite similar to Type 302 but is slightly more corrosion-resistant because of its higher nickel content. Its tensile strength is 10 to 15 percent lower than Type 302. It is used for aircraft springs.
Stainless Type 17-7 PH ASTM A313 (17 percent chromium, 7 percent nickel): This alloy, which also contains small amounts of aluminum and titanium, is formed in a moderately hard state and then precipitation hardened at relatively low temperatures for several hours to produce tensile strengths nearly comparable to music wire. This material is not readily available in all sizes, and has limited applications due to its high manufacturing cost.
Stainless Type 414, SAE 51414 (12 percent chromium, 2 percent nickel): This alloy has tensile strengths about 15 percent lower than Type 302 and can be hardened by heat-treatment. For best corrosion resistance it should be highly polished or kept clean. It can be obtained hard drawn in diameters up to 0.1875 inch and is commonly used in flat cold-rolled strip for stampings. The material is not satisfactory for use at low temperatures.
Stainless Type 420, SAE 51420 (13 percent chromium): This is the best stainless steel for use in large diameters above 0.1875 inch and is frequently used in smaller sizes. It is formed in the annealed condition and then hardened and tempered. It does not exhibit its stainless properties until after it is hardened. Clean bright surfaces provide the best corrosion resistance, therefore the heat-treating scale must be removed. Bright hardening methods are preferred.
Stainless Type 431, SAE 51431 (16 percent chromium, 2 percent nickel): This spring alloy acquires high tensile properties (nearly the same as music wire) by a combination of heat-treatment to harden the wire plus cold-drawing after heat-treatment. Its corrosion resistance is not equal to Type 302.
Copper-Base Spring Alloys
Copper-base alloys are important spring materials because of their good electrical properties combined with their good resistance to corrosion. Although these materials are more expensive than the high-carbon and the alloy steels, they nevertheless are frequently used in electrical components and in sub-zero temperatures.

Spring Brass, ASTM B 134 (70 percent copper, 30 percent zinc): This material is the least expensive and has the highest electrical conductivity of the copper-base alloys. It has a low tensile strength and poor spring qualities, but is extensively used in flat stampings and where sharp bends are needed. It cannot be hardened by heat-treatment and should not be used at temperatures above 150 °F but is especially good at sub-zero temperatures. Available in round sections and flat strips, this hard-drawn material is usually used in the “spring hard” temper.
Phosphor Bronze, ASTM B 159 (95 percent copper, 5 percent tin): This alloy is the most popular of this group because it combines the best qualities of tensile strength, hardness, electrical conductivity, and corrosion resistance with the least cost. It is more expensive than brass, but can withstand stresses 50 percent higher. The material cannot be hardened by heat-treatment. It can be used at temperatures up to 212 °F and at sub-zero temperatures. It is available in round sections and flat strip, usually in the “extra-hard” or “spring hard” tempers. It is frequently used for contact fingers in switches because of its low arcing properties. An 8 percent tin composition is used for flat springs and a superfine grain composition called “Duraflex” has good endurance properties.
Beryllium Copper, ASTM B 197 (98 percent copper, 2 percent beryllium): This alloy can be formed in the annealed condition and then precipitation hardened after forming at temperatures around 600 °F, for 2 to 3 hours. This treatment produces a high hardness combined with a high tensile strength. After hardening, the material becomes quite brittle and can withstand very little or no forming. It is the most expensive alloy in the group and heat-treating is expensive due to the need for holding the parts in fixtures to prevent distortion. The principal use of this alloy is for carrying electric current in switches and in electrical components. Flat strip is frequently used for contact fingers.
Nickel-Base Spring Alloys
Nickel-base alloys are corrosion resistant, withstand both elevated and sub-zero temperatures, and their non-magnetic characteristic makes them useful for such applications as gyroscopes, chronoscopes, and indicating instruments. These materials have a high electrical resistance and therefore should not be used for conductors of electrical current.

Monel* (67 percent nickel, 30 percent copper): This material is the least expensive of the nickel-base alloys. It also has the lowest tensile strength but is useful due to its resistance to the corrosive effects of seawater and because it is nearly non-magnetic. The alloy can be subjected to stresses slightly higher than phosphor bronze and nearly as high as beryllium copper. Its high tensile strength and hardness are obtained as a result of cold-drawing and cold-rolling only, since it can not be hardened by heat-treatment. It can be used at temperatures ranging from −100 to +425 °F at normal operating stresses and is available in round wires up to 3⁄16 inch in diameter with quite high tensile strengths. Larger diameters and flat strip are available with lower tensile strengths.
“K” Monel * (66 percent nickel, 29 percent copper, 3 percent aluminum): This material is quite similar to Monel except that the addition of the aluminum makes it a precipitation-hardening alloy. It may be formed in the soft or fairly hard condition and then hardened by a long-time age-hardening heat-treatment to obtain a tensile strength and hardness above Monel and nearly as high as stainless steel. It is used in sizes larger than those usually used with Monel, is non-magnetic and can be used in temperatures ranging from −100 to +450 °F at normal working stresses under 45,000 pounds per square inch.
Inconel* (78 percent nickel, 14 percent chromium, 7 percent iron): This is one of the most popular of the non-magnetic nickel-base alloys because of its corrosion resistance and because it can be used at temperatures up to 700 °F. It is more expensive than stainless steel but less expensive than beryllium copper. Its hardness and tensile strength is higher than that of “K” Monel and is obtained as a result of cold-drawing and cold-rolling only. It cannot be hardened by heat treatment. Wire diameters up to 1⁄4 inch have the best tensile properties. It is often used in steam valves, regulating valves, and for springs in boilers, compressors, turbines, and jet engines.
Inconel “X”* (70 percent nickel, 16 percent chromium, 7 percent iron): This material is quite similar to Inconel but the small amounts of titanium, columbium and aluminum in its composition make it a precipitation-hardening alloy. It can be formed in the soft or partially hard condition and then hardened by holding it at 1200 °F for 4 hours. It is non-magnetic and is used in larger sections than Inconel. This alloy is used at temperatures up to 850 °F and at stresses up to 55,000 pounds per square inch.
Duranickel* (“Z” Nickel) (98 percent nickel): This alloy is non-magnetic, corrosion-resistant, has a high tensile strength and is hardenable by precipitation hardening at 900 °F for 6 hours. It may be used at the same stresses as Inconel but should not be used at temperatures above 500 °F.

Nickel-Base Spring Alloys with Constant Moduli of Elasticity

Some special nickel alloys have a constant modulus of elasticity over a wide temperature range. These materials are especially useful where springs undergo temperature changes and must exhibit uniform spring characteristics. These materials have a low or zero thermo-elastic coefficient and therefore do not undergo variations in spring stiffness because of modulus changes due * Trade name of the International Nickel Company.to temperature differentials. They also have low hysteresis and creep values which makes them preferred for use in food-weighing scales, precision instruments, gyroscopes, measuring devices, recording instruments and computing scales where the temperature ranges from −50 to +150 °F. These materials are expensive, none being regularly stocked in a wide variety of sizes. They should not be specified without prior discussion with spring manufacturers because some suppliers may not fabricate springs from these alloys due to the special manufacturing processes required. All of these alloys are used in small wire diameters and in thin strip only and are covered by U.S. patents. They are more specifically described as follows:

Elinvar (nickel, iron, chromium): This alloy, the first constant-modulus alloy used for hairsprings in watches, is an austenitic alloy hardened only by cold-drawing and cold-rolling. Additions of titanium, tungsten, molybdenum and other alloying elements have brought about improved characteristics and precipitation-hardening abilities. These improved alloys are known by the following trade names: Elinvar Extra, Durinval, Modulvar and Nivarox.
Ni-Span C (nickel, iron, chromium, titanium): This very popular constant-modulus alloy is usually formed in the 50 percent cold-worked condition and precipitation-hardened at 900 °F for 8 hours, although heating up to 1250 °F for 3 hours produces hardnesses of 40 to 44 Rockwell C, permitting safe torsional stresses of 60,000 to 80,000 pounds per square inch. This material is ferromagnetic up to 400 °F; above that temperature it becomes non-magnetic.
Iso-Elastic† (nickel, iron, chromium, molybdenum): This popular alloy is relatively easy to fabricate and is used at safe torsional stresses of 40,000 to 60,000 pounds per square inch and hardnesses of 30 to 36 Rockwell C. It is used principally in dynamometers, instruments, and food-weighing scales.
Elgiloy‡ (nickel, iron, chromium, cobalt): This alloy, also known by the trade names 8J Alloy, Durapower, and Cobenium, is a non-magnetic alloy suitable for sub-zero temperatures and temperatures up to about 1000 °F, provided that torsional stresses are kept under 75,000 pounds per square inch. It is precipitation-hardened at 900 °F for 8 hours to produce hardnesses of 48 to 50 Rockwell C. The alloy is used in watch and instrument springs.
Dynavar*** (nickel, iron, chromium, cobalt): This alloy is a non-magnetic, corrosion-resistant material suitable for sub-zero temperatures and temperatures up to about 750 °F, provided that torsional stresses are kept below 75,000 pounds per square inch. It is precipitation-hardened to produce hardnesses of 48 to 50 Rockwell C and is used in watch and instrument springs.
Summary

This article presented a review of the types of spring materials, their mechanical properties, typical uses, as well as applications to avoid.

 

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